Thursday, October 31, 2019

Ogallala aquifer Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ogallala aquifer - Essay Example A lot of our water supply comes from water wells that are drilled deep down into the aquifers. We need these aquifers to stay unpolluted in order to continue to enjoy them. The Ogallala aquifer is one of the worlds largest and is located beneath the Great Plains area of the United States. It is fairly shallow but because of its surface area contains an enormous amount of water. This aquifer is vital for the future of the United States, and yet it is not doing very well. The water in it is running low. As one researcher recently framed the issue: Many people assume that large groundwater formations may temporarily run low, but will fill again when rainfall is plentiful – as do lakes, rivers, and reservoirs. However, unless the areas impacted are unaffected by the factors that contribute to high evaporation – such as minimal rainfall, abundant sunshine, low humidity, and periodic strong winds – this assumption is not even remotely correct. Therefore, it is imperative that we find solutions through research to water problems and maintain the aquifer as a continuing resource (Guru, 6). The problems range in severity and the length of time they will occur in. We must take action now to avoid the aquifers depletion and pollution. We need to preserve its use for future generations. To lose the use of this aquifer would be a serious indictment against the United States and a blow to farmers throughout the Midwest who rely on it to irrigate and water their crops. Sadly a number of new techniques threaten the safety of aquifers. In The Whole Fracking Enchilada by Sandra Steingraber, the author discusses how natural gas is extracted from shale. The process can be very destructive to the environment. We have to be mindful of this in the future as we continue to try to meet our energy needs while preserving the quality of our environment and drinking supply. Excessive water use in the extraction of natural resources is another threat to aquifers. We need water

Tuesday, October 29, 2019

Report to the presentation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Report to the presentation - Essay Example From the two aspects, success is assured for your presentation (Tolley & Wood 2011). This paper, therefore, seeks to compare two group’s case studies for their presentations. For case study six presentations, the presentation is about the role of the government while case study seven, talks about Ethics and globalization. The paper seeks to compare case studies’ six and seven. For a well written report presentation, it is essential that the group members do a thorough research on the subject matter. The group members should, therefore, read lots of sources to gather information concerning the subject. The reason for this is because having the ability to present a subject area with confidence affects the audience directly. In turn, this gives the audience an impression that will capture their attention. For instance, for case study six, the topic the role of government is clear and readers can easily tell what the presentation is all about. Similarly, case study seven’s topic is also clear and easily communicates the information to its audience. For this reason, both groups have shown strength in explicitly making the subject matter of their presentations simple for the audience to have an idea of what is to be presented. Both case studies discuss ethical issues and leaves questions on h ow to solve the ethical issues. The aspect of researching for a simple and easily understandable subject is essential in capturing the audience’s attention. For both presentations, the members did a lot of research, and this could only be achieved through teamwork and a high level of cooperation (Tolley & Wood 2011). Teamwork and cooperation are vital components that ensure successful presentations, and this is portrayed in case studies one and seven. Another similarity between the case study six and seven is that they leave the reader with an open mind of making an ethical decision in solving the problem at hand. However, both case studies

Sunday, October 27, 2019

What is the Impact of HIV/AIDS on Women?

What is the Impact of HIV/AIDS on Women? ABSTRACT This dissertation will outline the major issues surrounding HIV/AIDS infection as it relates to women, with specific reference to women in Zimbabwe and the United Kingdom (UK). It will explore the reasons why women are increasingly at greater risk of infection than males. Underpinned by a feminist analysis of womens oppression, it will include a discussion of how biological, social, sexual, economic and cultural inequalities contribute to womens vulnerability. It will also look at the impact of HIV/AIDS on women and how these factors can influence them to seek services. The differences in what is deemed â€Å"social work† in terms of both definition and practice as well as the differences in the health systems and the healthcare workers involved in delivering services in both countries will also be explored. INTRODUCTION AIDS stands for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, a disease that makes it difficult for the body to fight off infectious diseases. The human immunodeficiency virus known as HIV causes AIDS by infecting and damaging part of the bodys defences its lymphocytes against infection. Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell in the bodys immune system and are supposed to fight off invading germs. People may be infected (HIV positive) for many years before full AIDS develops, and they may be unaware of their status. HIV can only be passed on if infected blood, semen, vaginal fluids or breast milk gets inside another persons body. HIV and AIDS can be treated, but there are no vaccines or cures for them (WHO, 2003). HIV/AIDS PREVALENCE IN WOMEN IN ZIMBABWE AND THE UK Increasingly, â€Å"the face of HIV/AIDS is a womans face† (UNAIDS, 2004). AIDS is now the leading cause of death in Sub-Saharan Africa and the fourth-highest cause of death globally (UNAIDS, 2002). AIDS is a profound human tragedy and has been referred to as the â€Å"worlds most deadly undeclared war† (Richardson, 1987). Women and girls are especially vulnerable to HIV infection due to a host of biological, social, cultural and economic factors, including womens entrenched social and economic inequality within sexual relationships and marriage. HIV/AIDS continue their devastating spread, affecting the lives of 16,000 people each day, with women, babies and young people being increasingly affected. The number of people living with HIV/AIDS has now reached almost 40 million globally (UNAIDS and WHO, 2006), and of these an estimated two-thirds live in Sub-Saharan Africa, Zimbabwe included. Zimbabwe is experiencing one of the harshest AIDS epidemics in the world. The HIV prevalence rate in Zimbabwe is among the highest in the world, although recent evidence suggests that prevalence may be starting to decline. In Zimbabwe 1.8 million adults and children are living with HIV/AIDS, with 24.6% of adults infected: women represent 58% of those infected among the 20- to 49-year-old age range. (Consortium on AIDS and International Development, 2006) In a country with such a tense political and social climate, it has been difficult to respond to the crisis. President Robert Mugabe and his government have been widely criticised by the international community, and Zimbabwe has become increasingly isolated, both politically and economically. The country has had to confront a number of severe crises in the past few years, including an unprecedented rise in inflation (in January 2008 it reached 100,000%), a severe cholera epidemic, high rates of unemployment, political violence, and a near-total collapse of the health system (AIDS and HIV Information, 2009). In Britain, HIV prevalence is relatively low and currently stands at 0.2% of the population. Statistics show that at the end of 2008 there were an estimated 88,300 people living with HIV, of whom over a quarter (22,400, or 27%) were unaware of their infection. This compares to the 77,000 people estimated to be living with HIV in 2007, of whom 28% were estimated to be unaware of their HIV infection. Of all diagnoses to the end of 2008, 45% resulted from sex between men and 42% from heterosexual sex, with black Africans representing 35% of newly diagnosed infections (HPA, 2009). According to the Health Protection Agency (2009), there has also been a dramatic increase in the number of women diagnosed with HIV. In the years up to and including 1992, females accounted for 12% of HIV diagnoses, but in 2008 that was 37%. Therefore, as HIV/AIDS is a global pandemic, the eradication of this health issue represents one of humanitys greatest challenges one that requires co-operation and comprehensive collaboration between scientific disciplines, governments, social institutions, the media, social work and healthcare professionals, and the general public (IFSW, 2009). Social workers, by virtue of their training, their commitment to human rights, and the fact that they are uniquely placed within a wide variety of health and welfare settings, can play a very effective role in the global effort to address the HIV/AIDS epidemic (IFSW, 2009). 1. CHAPTER 1 1.1 OVERVIEW OF GENDER AND VULNERABILITY TO HIV/AIDS While women are battling for equal rights throughout the international community, the existing power imbalance between men and women renders women particularly vulnerable to contracting HIV. Womens subordinate position places them at a considerable disadvantage with respect to their fundamental human right to control their own sexuality, and to access prevention, care, treatment, and support services and information. This subordination of women is mainly caused by the socially-constructed relations between men and women or, in other words, the patriarchal structure which is oppressive to women. (Walby, 1990, cited in Richardson, 2000) defines patriarchy as the â€Å"system of social structures and practices that men use to dominate, oppress and exploit women†, thus giving them greater opportunities to access services compared to females. Although the World Health Organization (WHO) and many governments are implementing educational programmes to teach women about protecting th eir health, traditional and cultural practices continue to perpetuate discrimination against women, in turn forcing women into high-risk situations. Unless proactive human-rights policies are enacted to empower, educate, and protect women with regard to their sexual autonomy, HIV/AIDS will continue to spread at an alarming rate and will have a devastating impact on all aspects of society. Even though the root of womens vulnerability lies in the imbalance in power between men and women, biological and sexual practices have an important role to play and mean that HIV transmission is unfortunately more efficient in women than in men. 1.2 WOMENS BIOLOGICAL VULNERABILITY TO HIV/AIDS Women are more biologically vulnerable to HIV than men; research has shown that women are at greater risk than men of contracting HIV both from an individual act of intercourse and from each sexual partnership. This â€Å"biological sexism† applies not only to HIV but to most other sexually transmitted diseases (Hatcher, et al, 1989). A woman has a 50 per cent chance of acquiring gonorrhoea from an infected male partner while a man has a 25 per cent chance if he has sex with an infected woman (Doyal et al., 1994). This is because the vaginal tissue absorbs fluids more easily, including the sperm, which has a higher concentration of the HIV virus than female vaginal secretions and may remain in the vagina for hours following intercourse, thus increasing womens vulnerability to infection. Not only are women more vulnerable to STIs than men, but â€Å"untreated genital infections, especially genital ulcer disease, syphilis and genital herpes, all predispose to HIV infection† (Doyal, 1994). While STDs are not necessarily gender specific, it is likely that women with STDs will remain undiagnosed and untreated for longer, increasing their risk of infection (Finnegan, et al, 1993). This is largely because women tend to remain symptomless for longer than men (Doyal, 1994). Even though much is known about the transmission of HIV to women through unprotected sex with men, less is known about the manifestations, progression, treatment and care of HIV/AIDS in women. Due to the lack of research we can at best speculate on the reasons for this. One reason may be the failure of medical professionals to pick up on possible symptoms which are often present in women: â€Å"existing diagnostic guidelines pay little attention to symptoms such as thrush, herpes, menstrual problems and cervical cell abnormalities that seem to characterise the early stages of the disease process in many women. Indeed a significant number are diagnosed only during pregnancy or when their child is found to be HIV positive†. (Doyal, 1994, p13) Therefore, if researchers persist in ignoring the biological differences, then the realities of the risks of infection and the disease progression in women will remain unacknowledged. As a consequence of this, women will continue to be diagnosed later than men, which ultimately leads to an earlier death. (Gorst, 2001,) Further research into biological differences and the effects of HIV on womens bodies is urgently needed. 1.3 TRADITIONAL AND CULTURAL FACTORS Traditional and customary practices play a part in the vulnerability of women to HIV infection. Practices such as early marriage and the payment of lobola in marriages make women and girls more vulnerable to HIV infection. Marriages among black women in Zimbabwe include bride wealth â€Å"lobola† if the couple is to be socially approved. Bride wealth is increasingly becoming big business in Zimbabwe, with some parents charging as much as US$2,500 plus five or more cattle for an educated girl. (IRIN NEWS, 2009) The insistence on bride wealth as the basis of validating a marriage makes female sexuality a commodity and reduces women to sexual objects, with limited rights and privileges compared to their husbands, who pay in order to marry them, thus leaving them without a say in their relationship. Patriarchal attitudes are also found in Christianity and these have strengthened the traditional customs that men use to control womens sexuality. (Human Rights Monitor, 2001) For example, Eves alleged creation from Adams rib has made women occupy a subordinate position in the Church as well as in the family. Women are therefore viewed merely as second-class citizens who were created as an afterthought. This is to say that if God had seen it fit for Adam to stay alone, then Eve would never have been created and hence women would not exist in this world. Such patriarchal attitudes have seen women being forced to be submissive to males. To make matters worse, once Eve was created she wreaked havoc by giving in to the Devils temptation and pulling Adam into sin. This portrayal of women as the weaker sex has made men treat women as people who have to be kept under constant supervision. St Pauls letter to the Colossians is one example of the letters which Zimbabwean men quote as a justifi cation of their control over women. The woman is expected â€Å"to submit to her husband† (Colossians 3:18) whilst the husband has to love his wife (Colossians 3:19). Therefore, because of these beliefs, women will remain passive and powerless in relation to sexual health, making them more vulnerable to HIV/AIDS. 1.4 CONFLICT AND CIVIL UNREST Migration or displacement as a result of civil strife, natural disasters, drought, famine and political oppression has a greater impact on womens vulnerability to HIV infection compared to men. About 75 per cent of all refugees and displaced people are women and children. The political and economic crisis in many African and Asian countries has caused many women to come to the UK in search of safer lives and employment (Freedman, 2003). The World Health Organization (WHO, 2003) states that female immigrant workers are more vulnerable to sexual barter as they try to negotiate for necessary documentation, employment and housing, which further increases their risk of HIV/AIDS infection. In addition, because of the lack of legal documentation these women will experience limited options, receive low status, receive low pay and are often isolated in their work, including marriage, domestic, factory and sex work. These situations place women in vulnerable and powerless positions, with little ability to refuse or negotiate safe sex, thereby increasing their risk to HIV/AIDS. Despite the risks associated with the migration process it is important to recognise the right to ‘freedom of movement and travel irrespective of HIV status (ICW 12 Statement and the Barcelona Bill of Rights, 2002). This was a focal point during the Barcelona HIV/AIDS conference in 2002, because the Spanish authorities denied visas to numerous people from the South many of whom were open about their HIV status. Some countries do have discriminatory policies regarding travel of people living with HIV/AIDS (PLHA) and others are instituting stricter controls. For example, Canada has recently introduced the need for an HIV test for people emigrating to Canada and Australia. Whilst they say it will not affect the final decision it is not clear why they need the information (Tallis, 2002). 1.5 POVERTY AND INEQUALITY Women and men experience poverty differently because of gender inequality: The causes and outcomes of poverty are heavily engendered and yet traditional conceptualisations consistently fail to delineate povertys gender dimensions resulting in policies and programmes which fail to improve the lives of poor women and their families (Beneria and Bisnath, 1998). Despite worldwide attention to existing inequalities and the way these violate a socially-just society, there is no society in the world in which women are treated as equals with men (Doyal, 2001). Major inequalities between men and women still exist in many places from opportunities in education and employment to choices in relationships. Gender and social inequalities make women more vulnerable to HIV infection, especially in societies which afford women a lower status than men. Worldwide, women and girls are disproportionately impacted by poverty, representing 70 per cent of the 1.2 billion people who live in poverty worldwide (Amnesty International, 2005), a phenomenon commonly referred to as the â€Å"feminisation of poverty†. Worldwide, women receive an average of 30-40 per cent less pay than men for the same work (Card et al, 2007). This economic inequality may influence womens ability to control the timing and safety of sexual intercourse. Specifically, economic dependence on men, especially those who are not educated and do not have good jobs, forces women to remain silent about HIV risk issues and to stay with partners who refuse to engage in safe-sex practices. Poverty also leads to greater HIV risk among women by leading them to barter sex for economic gain or survival (Weiss et al, 1996). Commercial sex work is the most well-known way for women to exchange sex for money, food, shelter or other necessities. Most of this sex will be unsafe as women will be at risk of losing economic support from men by insisting on safer sex. Where substance abuse is a factor, the means for obtaining clean needles may be traded for other essentials. Trading or sharing needles is a way to reduce drug-addiction costs. Risk behaviours and disease potential are predictable under such compromised circumstances (Albertyn, 2000, cited in Card, 2007). Educational inequality also contributes to a womans HIV risk directly, by making information on HIV/AIDS less accessible to her, and indirectly, by increasing her economic dependence on a male partner. In particular, studies show that more-educated women are more likely to know how to prevent HIV transmission, delay sexual activity, use healthcare services, and take other steps to prevent the spread of HIV (UNIFEM, 2004). Because many cultures value ignorance about sex as a feature of femininity, many young women are prevented by husbands, fathers, or other family members from obtaining information about HIV/AIDS. Others decline to seek such information out of fear for their reputations. Lack of education about the causes, prevention, and treatment of HIV/AIDS will increase these womens vulnerability to infection. Legal systems and cultural norms in many countries reinforce gender inequality by giving men control over productive resources such as land, through marriage laws that subordinate wives to their husbands and inheritance customs that make males the principal beneficiaries of family property (Baylies, 2000). For example, Zimbabwe has a dual legal system, recognising both common and customary law in marriage. This creates inequalities for many women upon divorce or their husbands death. Women in customary marriages, especially those who are not educated and who live in rural areas, make up approximately 80% of marriages in Zimbabwe, and are not entitled to the same rights as those married under common law; this means that they are often barred from inheriting property and land, or getting custody of their children, thus making them more vulnerable to male dominance and increasing their risk of getting infected with STIs (Womankind, 2002). 1.6 CONCLUSION Power inequalities at social, economic, biological, political and cultural levels mean that women continue to be increasingly more at risk from HIV infection. It is therefore critical that social workers and other healthcare professionals make sure that HIV/AIDS prevention and care programmes address the most immediate perceived barriers to accessing HIV/AIDS prevention and care services. Measures could include vocational training, employment, micro-finance programmes, legal support, safe housing and childcare services. Such measures would empower these women to have options and to take voluntary and informed decisions regarding the adoption of safer practices to prevent the transmission of HIV/AIDS (UNODC, 2006). There is also the need for a female-controlled form of protection which women can use to protect themselves, for example microbicides, which women can use without the consent or even the knowledge of their partner, thus enabling them to protect themselves if they are forced to engage in unprotected sex. 2. CHAPTER 2 2.1 HIGH-RISK GROUPS OF WOMEN Although there is a vast literature on HIV/AIDS, relatively little has been written about how HIV/AIDS affects women, and what constitutes a high-risk group. In part, this reflects the way AIDS was initially perceived in the West as a â€Å"mens disease†, so much so that until a few years ago a common response to the topic of women and AIDS was â€Å"Do women get AIDS?†, the assumption being that women were at little or no risk (Doyal, et al, 1994). This has never been true of Africa, where the appallingly pervasive epidemic has always been a heterosexual disease and where 55 per cent of those who have been infected were women. In recent years it has become increasingly clear that women can both become infected with HIV and transmit the virus. A study conducted by AWARE (Association for Womens AIDS Research and Education) in America found that women who inject and share needles, have sexual contact with or are artificially inseminated by a man, lesbians, sex workers and those from an ethnic minority, especially black women, were at increased risk of HIV infection (Richardson, 1987). The study also found that most people in these groups are underrepresented in prevention or treatment interventions, and often suffer social stigma, isolation, poverty and marginalisation, which place them at higher risk. Therefore, in this chapter I am going to discuss how some of these groups are vulnerable to infection, and what can be done to prevent and treat infection in these vulnerable groups without inadvertently increasing their stigmatisation. 2.2 PROSTITUTES There is a substantial body of research on the correlation between HIV/AIDS infection and female prostitution. Studies worldwide have revealed cause-and-effect relationships between AIDS and prostitution in a number of areas, including the use of alcohol and/or psychoactive drugs, and have revealed variance in the rate and circumstance of infection from one country to another (OLeary et al, 1996). For example, researchers have found the high rate of AIDS in Africa to be largely a reflection of exposure through sexual activity only, while in the US and Europe, transmission of the AIDS virus is more likely to come from prostitutes or customers who are also IV drug users. Many writers have pointed out that real social concern about HIV infection did not materialise until its potential â€Å"spread to heterosexuals† was recognised. What is less often pointed out is that concern for the â€Å"spread to heterosexuals† has mostly been manifest in concern for the spread to heterosexual men, not heterosexual women (Flowers, 1998). The expressed fear is that HIV will spread from women to men, allegedly through prostitution. In the press and the international scientific literature on AIDS, often the light cast upon Women in Prostitution (WIP) has been a harsh one. WIP have been identified as a â€Å"risk group†, a â€Å"reservoir of infection†, and a â€Å"bridge† for the HIV epidemic. Such technical, epidemiological language has depicted WIP as vectors of HIV infection (Scharf and Toole, 1992). Rather than presenting WIP as links in broader networks of heterosexual HIV transmission, women categorised as prostitutes have bee n described as â€Å"infecting† their unborn infants, their clients and indirectly their clients other female sexual partners, as though HIV originated among WIP (Scharf and Toole, 1992). Like posters from WWI and WWII which aimed to warn armed servicemen in Europe of the danger of contracting gonorrhoea and syphilis (Brandt, 1985, cited in Flowers et al, 1998), some AIDS-prevention posters have caricatured WIP as evil sirens ready to entice men to their deaths (New African, 1987, cited in Larson, 1988). Interestingly, there is evidence that some HIV-positive men may be inclined to claim that their infection came from a female prostitute, in order to cover up its real origins: sex with a man, or IV drug use. 2.3 PROSTITUTION IN ZIMBABWE There are many reasons why women engage in prostitution in Zimbabwe. Studies show that poverty and deviance are the main causes. Other studies have shown that many women engage themselves in prostitution by their own choice and see it as a career path whilst others might be forced into it (Chudakov, 1995). In Zimbabwe prostitution is illegal, and many women and young girls, especially orphans who engage in prostitution, are driven to it by poverty and economic dislocation, which is being caused by the current economic and political crisis the country is experiencing. According to the United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF), the hunger and disease-ridden conditions in much of Zimbabwe have forced many children into prostitution in order to feed themselves (UNICEF, 2008). Save the Children, a non-governmental organisation working to create positive changes for disadvantaged children in the country, estimate that girls as young as 12 are now selling their bodies for even the most meagr e of meals, such as biscuits and chips. They also state that the issue is further complicated by the growing presence of child traffickers in the region, looking for young girls to abduct and take to South Africa for the use of potential clients at the 2010 World Cup (Mediaglobal, 2009). Combating child prostitution and trafficking is complicated, but prioritising the alleviation of poverty with particular emphasis on fighting poverty from a childs perspective; prioritising education for all, with emphasis on improving access for girls; and provision of information to victims and survivors of child prostitution and/or trafficking, including information about available counselling and legislative services would be helpful (WHO, 2003). 2.4 PROSTITUTION IN THE UK Prostitution in the UK is different from that in Zimbabwe. The laws around prostitution in England and Wales are far from straight-forward. The act of prostitution is not in itself illegal but a string of laws criminalises activities around it. Under the Sexual Offences Act 2003, it is an offence to cause or incite prostitution or control it for personal gain. The 1956 Sexual Offences Act bans running a brothel and its against the law to loiter or solicit sex on the street. Kerb-crawling is also banned, providing it can be shown that the individual was causing a persistent annoyance (BBC NEWS, 2008). Though actual s are scarce, it has been estimated that at least 2 million women are selling sexual favours in Britain. The bulk of these are brothel prostitutes working in parlours, saunas or private health clubs. According to The First Post published on 18/08/08, prostitution was viewed as â€Å"the new profession†. The article stated that prostitution in Britain is booming, and that thousands of young women have chosen prostitution for independence and financial security. The key factor which has led to a huge rise in this kind of prostitution is the influx of girls from Poland and other Eastern European countries which acceded to the EU in 2000. A strong relationship also exists between UK prostitutes and substance abuse, which drives many into the sex business. Intravenous-drug-using prostitutes are particularly prominent in Scottish cities such as Glasgow (OLeary et al, 1996). According to researchers, 70 per cent of the citys streetwalkers are IV drug addicts, injecting heroin, temazepam and tengesic. In Edinburgh, which has the highest rate of HIV-seropositive IV drug addicts of all cities in Britain, a significant number of those addicts testing HIV positive have been identified as prostitutes. Even though sex workers can transmit HIV/AIDS, blaming them encourages stigma and discrimination against all women. It allows the men who infect sex workers and their own wives to deny that they are infecting others. Wives too can infect their husbands, who can in turn infect sex workers. It is therefore important to note that sex workers and their clients are not serving as a â€Å"bridge† for HIV transmission into the rest of the population. 2.4 LESBIANS Can women transmit the disease to other women through sexual activity? The answer to this question is crucial for a community that knows that HIV is within it even though the question might be difficult to answer as there is â€Å"very little† information on this subject (Richardson, 1987). Lesbians were seen as least likely to be infected, as there was an understanding of HIV as a disease which existed in specific groups of people, for example gay males and intravenous-drug users. Because of these biased attitudes toward people, rather than risk behaviours, no data was systematically gathered. This understanding prevented the healthcare system from defining sexual risk behaviours: it stressed people, not sexual behaviours. It has therefore been noted that most lesbians have been in â€Å"risk situations† or engaged in what would be considered as â€Å"risky behaviour† at some stage. Some lesbians inject drugs and may share needles. Also, a significant number of lesbians have had sex with men before coming out, and many will have had unprotected vaginal or anal intercourse Some may still have sex with men for reproductive purposes (Gorna, 1996). Some may be prostitutes who, for economic reasons or through pressure from a pimp, may have had unprotected sex with clients (Richardson, 1989). According to records from a London sexual health clinic for lesbians, 35 per cent of the lesbians who attended had had sex with a man in the previous six months (Gorna, 1996). As Gorna puts it, this emphasises the fact that â€Å"activity is not always consistent with identity†. In other words, â€Å"we are put at risk by what we do, not by how we define ourselves or who we are† (Bury, 1994, p32). Although the risk of HIV infection from sex between women is very small, it is important for lesbians to look at what they do, how they do it and with whom they do it, just like everyone else, as, â€Å"Low risk isnt no risk† (Richardson, D, 2004). However, they may find it difficult to access services and, if they become ill, they may experience special problems, given that the healthcare system is designed for and administered by a predominantly heterosexual population. There may be a lack of recognition of their relationships, which could lead to isolation and depression. For example in Zimbabwe homosexuality is illegal and punishable by imprisonment of up to 10 years. The President of Zimbabwe, Robert Mugabe, views lesbians and gays as â€Å"sexual perverts† who are â€Å"lower than dogs and pigs† (BBC NEWS, 1998). In 1995 he ordered the Zimbabwe International Book Fair to ban an exhibit by the civil-rights group Gays and Lesbians in Zimbabwe (GALZ). He follo wed this ban with warnings that homosexuals should leave the country â€Å"voluntarily† or face â€Å"dire consequences†. Soon afterwards Mugabe urged the public to track down and arrest lesbians and gays. Since these incitements, homosexuals have been fire-bombed, arrested, interrogated and threatened with death (Tatchell, 2001). This makes it difficult for lesbians in Zimbabwe to access information and other services, thus increasing their vulnerability to HIV infection. 2.5 ELDERLY WOMEN The number of older people (older than 50 years) with HIV/AIDS is growing fast. Older adults are infected through the same high-risk behaviours as young adults, though they may be unaware that they are at risk of HIV/AIDS. However, when assessing the impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic upon the worlds population, older people are often overlooked. HIV-prevention measures rarely target the older generation, despite the fact that many older people are sexually active and therefore still at risk of being exposed to HIV. The older population is steadily growing larger with the maturing of the â€Å"baby-boomer† generation as well as the availability of antiretroviral drugs which extend peoples life expectancy. Social norms about divorce, sex, and dating are changing, and drugs such as Viagra are facilitating a more active sex life for older adults (NAHOF, 2007, cited in Lundy et al, 2009). Heterosexual women aged 50 and older are most in need of the HIV-prevention message. The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS, 2006) estimates that around 2.8 million adults aged 50 years and over are living with HIV, representing 7 per cent of all cases. In the UK, the Health Protection Agency reported that almost 4,000 HIV-infected people who were accessing care in 2006 were aged 55 years or over. Data on this subject from low-income countries like Zimbabwe is fairly patchy. This is because HIV/AIDS surveillance is commonly conducted in antenatal clinics, as many people have little other direct contact with medical services. Data from antenatal clinics does not provide information about people who are above child-bearing age, thus making it difficult for healthcare and service providers to make policies that will impact on the elderly who are infected. Firstly, it has been noted that elderly women can be exposed to HIV via non-consensual sexual contact or rape. Research has shown that some criminals appear to target older women for sexual crimes because they appear to be, and often are, vulnerable to attack (Muram et al, 1992). Elderly women in institutional settings such as nursing homes may also be at greater risk. Some estimates suggest that up to 15 per cent of elderly nursing-home residents have been victims of either sexual or physical abuse, thus increasing their vulnerability to HIV infection (Collins, 2002). Exposure to blood tainted with HIV may also occur when an older woman provides care to adult children who may be suffering from AIDS (Levine-Perkell, 1996). Allers (1990) revealed that more than one-third of all adults who contract A Organisational Flexibility: Definition and Benefits Organisational Flexibility: Definition and Benefits How can we define organizational flexibility? There are many definitions for flexibility. In the sense of managing human resources, flexibility can be defined as the organisation adapting to size, composition, responsiveness and the people . their inputs and costs required to achieved organisational objectives and goals. Organisational flexibility can also be defined when work gets done, where it gets done and how work gets done. Organisational Flexibility includes: Having flex time, so the employee chooses the start of their day and the end of their day, Being able to take off time through the day to take care of family issues, for example an employee being able to go everyday to fetch their children from school and take them home then returning to work, Taking a few days off in order to take care of family matters and not losing any leave days or pay. So an example would be taking days off in order to go look after a sick family member or to go to a funeral or something, An employee working some of their daily work hours at home, so an employee either coming into work late due working at home in the morning, or leaving work early and working at home a few hours, Working shifts, this means employees working different times. Maybe working day shift one week and night shift the other week. Some people might prefer this as it would be more predictable. Therefore they can plan lives, When people choose when they want to work, the hours they want to work, knowing when they can take time off each day. Employees will generally have control over their work day or schedule, Employees can sometimes work longer hours during some days of the week in order to get some days off; they have compressed their work week. Which allows them to have more time for themselves, In some cases employees can advance, go up in their jobs even of they choose their work hours or compress their weeks The need for flexibility in the workplace The need for organisational flexibility is very important. When looking at why there is a need a for flexibility there are factors that are creating the need for flexibility in the workplace. Things are changing all the time, which means an organisation, must be able to take on these changes. Aspects such as social, technological, economical, legal, political and other global factors in which a business operate within are changing all the time, so organisations should be able to adapt when these changes happen. So in other words they need to be flexible. As it says there is a need for flexibility in the workplace, but there is also a need for flexibility in the workforce, meaning the staff. As change happens, how work gets done too changes therefore the workforce should also be flexible. Those aspects I mentioned above, I find is not the factor of change that requires the workplace to be flexible. Another factor I find to be important is the employees. People are changing. Their needs and wants are changing, their ways are changing, how they live is changing and how they work is changing too. Therefore some people are not wanting to work normally, having a Monday to Friday, 9 to 5 job. People are wanting to be more flexible with their time, therefore wanting to work less hours, certain days of the week, have time off or whatever it may be. Therefore some of the workplaces might benefit if they make themselves flexible in the sense of offering these things to employees. So the workplace should be flexible with that factor too. There are some aspects that have allowed flexibility to be put in place in the workplace: * The biggest asset to an organisation is the people who work there, therefore this can create competitive advantage through people. Its best if the organisation is flexible in the number of people and the skills in the workplace * Organisation are becoming more flexible in specialization production, so making specialized goods. And shifting from mass productions. Making goods of the same in bulk * There are changes in life-style, private and work life balance and social changes * There are constant technological changes. Therefore HR services are becoming wider; organisations are doing things differently in the sense of technology. E working and so on I suppose in the past organisations were very structured, rigid. And today there still has to be structure in the workplace, as an organisation wont work if there wasnt some form of structure. In todays workplace, heavily structured organisations, with rigid job specifications, with strict management styles wont work. The workplace is changing due the ever changing and not predictable environments. Therefore that is why there is a need for organisational flexibility. Types of Organisational Flexibility There are a number of different types of organisational flexibility. They are: Functional Flexibility- Functional flexibility basically states that employees will do jobs that go beyond what they are actually there to do. So they will perform jobs that they werent originally specified to do. So employees should be able to do different jobs but still do their own. So the organisation will require multi-skilled employees. So for example would be in an organisation, a debtors clerk doing their own job, which is debtors, but also being able to do creditors when required. Numerical Flexibility- This basically involves an organisation bring labour in or taking labour out in accordance service or product demand. The state of the economy can also be a factor for the organisation to bring in or go without labour. They can control this by the number of employees they need at the time. Therefore they will hire as they need. They can do this by hiring casuals or part time workers. Financial Flexibility- Procedural Flexibility- Skills Flexibility- Attitudinal Flexibility- Structural Flexibility-

Friday, October 25, 2019

The Threatening of Australias Marsupials :: Endangered Species Animals Nature Essays

The Threatening of Australia's Marsupials About fifty percent of all mammal species worldwide to have become extinct in the last 200 years have been from Australia, giving Australia the worst record for mammal conservation of any country or continent. Of a total 245 mammalian species, 59 are listed as extinct, threatened, or vulnerable (Short 1994). Most of these extinctions and declines come from two taxonomic groups--the rodents and the marsupials. Because marsupials are so abundant and diverse in Australia, I decided to research the endangerment and conservation efforts regarding marsupial species. Sixty percent of the extinct, endangered, and vulnerable Australian fauna are indeed marsupials; table 1 on the next page lists Australia's threatened marsupial species. Endangered is defined as a species in danger of extinction whose survival is unlikely if certain threats continue operating, vulnerable species are believed likely to move into the endangered category in the near future if threats continue, and to be considered extinct the species has definitely not been located in the wild during the last 50 years (ANPWS 1991). Extinctions and declines have not uniformly affected marsupial species. Terrestrial, medium-sized marsupials in the weight range of 35.0 g to 5.5 kg have proven to be more vulnerable, and omnivores and herbivores have declined to a greater extent than carnivores. Arboreal species such as possums and gliders and species that use rock piles for shelter have been less affected. Most problems with extinction and endangerment occur in the southern arid zone and the wheat belt of Western Australia; while the tropical north of Australia, the mesic northeast and coast of New South Wales, Tasmania, and numerous offshore islands have remained relatively unaffected by local extinctions (Short 1994). The problems Seven main hypotheses have been put forward to explain why species have declined and/or disappeared from various parts of Australia, and they include: 1) clearing for agriculture, 2) draining and salination of wetlands, 3) grazing and browsing by introduce animals, 4) changed fire regimes, 5) introduced predators, 6) disease, and 7) overkill by hunters (Kennedy 1992). By studying the history of threatened fauna and patterns of decline, experts have come to the conclusion that some of these hypotheses can be dismissed as not being a primary cause of declining populations. For instance, there is no direct evidence that disease has led to any mammal extinctions, though epidemics have been blamed for the decline of carnivorous marsupials in southeastern Australia and Tasmania at the turn of the century.

Thursday, October 24, 2019

Obesity †case study and health promotion paper Essay

Obesity has reached global epidemic proportions, and has become a major health problem of out society. According to Peeters et al. (2007), 32% or 60 million people are now obese in the United States. The condition develops as a result of the interaction between genetics, lifestyle behavior, and cultural and environmental influences. Fat accumulates when more energy is consumed than expended. The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) has adopted a classification system of body mass index (BMI). BMI, the indirect measure of body fat, identifies the overweight and obese individuals. A BMI of 25-29 kg/m2 is considered overweight, 30-34 kg/m2 is mild obesity, 35-39 kg/m2 is moderate obesity, and above 40 kg/m2 is extreme obesity (Palamara, Mogul, Peterson, Frishman, 2006). Obesity develops due to high-fat, high carbohydrate diet coupled with a decline in physical activity. Modern living conditions, eating habits, and quality of food lead to over-consumption of cheap, super sized portions. More cars, roads, and fast food restaurants at every corner, as well as quick, ready to eat microwavable dinners loaded with fat, salt, and simple carbohydrates are easier and often less expensive than nutritious, quality food products. Furthermore, the technology has made humans rely on mechanical devices. The automated inventions designed to make life easier, perform thousands of tasks that in the past required physical labor. As a result of sedentary life and over-consumption, the excessive fat accumulates in the body, and may have significant health consequences. Multiple research studies have revealed that excessive weight gain increases the risk of diabetes, hypertension, dyslipidemia, coronary heart disease, stroke, osteoarthritis, and many forms of cancer. In particular, abdominal obesity has been recognized as strongly associated with the development of diabetes and cardiovascular diseases (Behn & Ur, 2006) (Chen et al., 2007) (Balkau et al., 2007) (Despres, 2007). Due to the dangerous health risks of obesity, it is considered a disease that requires treatment (Palamara et al., 2006). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (n.d.) estimated that medical expenses related to obesity cost $92.6 billion in the year 2002, and the condition causes 300,000 deaths per year. Nevertheless, prevention of the multiple health consequences of obesity is possible by weight reduction. Bardia, Holtan, Slezak and Thompson (2007) suggested that: â€Å"Even a small decrease in a patient’s weight would result in better control of multiple diseases, enhance quality of life, greatly improve a patient’s morbidity, and result in lower health care use and medical costs†. In addition to preventing many diseases, weight reduction can improve the already present disorders. Research indicates that weight loss of 4% to 8% is associated with a decrease of systolic and diastolic blood pressure by 3 mmHg (Mulrow et al., 1998). The main weight reducing interventions include: diet, exercise, psychological, behavioral, pharmacotherapy, surgery, and alternative therapies (Vlassov, 2001). However, the long term effectiveness of these interventions has not proven effective, as majority of people regain their weight after losing it (Biaggioni, 2008). Guidelines for weight reduction suggested by NHLBI involve the following: initial reduction of 10% of body weight, low calorie diet (800-1500 kcal/d); 30% calories from fat, 15% calories from protein, and 55% calories from carbohydrates, daily deficit of 500-1000 kcal to lose one to two pounds per week during six months, long term weight maintenance, and physical activity for 30 to 45 minutes three to five days a week (Palamara et al., 2006). Health care providers are faced with the prevention and management of a major cause of morbidity and mortality for which effective life long interventions are desperately needed. CASE STUDY Bob is a 38 year old white male. Except for hypertension, he considers himself healthy. He has seen his family doctor three months ago for regular blood pressure check up, as he does every six months. Bob is married, has four adolescent children, and works as an automobile dealer for fourteen years. Past medical history: hypertension, obesity, hyperlipidemia Allergies: none to medications, latex, animals, foods, or environmental Hospitalizations / surgeries / injuries: tonsillectomy in childhood Medications: lisinopril 20mg orally daily Family medical history: mother and brother with hypertension Social history: lives with wife and children, all very supportive of each other, get along well, drinks 2 glasses of whiskey socially on weekends, denies smoking or illicit substance use Physical activities: walks on treadmill for twenty minutes once or twice a week, occasionally plays volleyball with family on weekends Daily intake patterns: breakfast – four sandwiches with cheese and ham; lunch – home made soup, cooked or fried sausage; dinner – salad, lots of potatoes, 2 portions of steak or meatloaf or chicken, pickled vegetables; supper – pasta with sauce or pizza; snacks – chips, cookies, candy, pretzels and fruits, all throughout the day; fluids – 8 glasses of soda, juice, water or milk. Review of systems: unremarkable, no complaints. Weight: 280 pounds, Height: 6’3†³, Waist circumference: 52†³, BMI: 35kg/m ², BP: 150/90 mmHg Most recent abnormal laboratory tests: total cholesterol – 220, triglycerides – 310 All other results including glucose, blood count, BUN, creatinine, and liver enzymes were within normal range. Bob admitted that weight loss has been one of the greatest challenges for  him. His several previous attempts at weight reduction have been unsuccessful. He expressed willingness and readiness to try again, but was concerned that he would not be able to follow the plan long term. Bob’s family was very supportive, and willing to help with his weight loss attempts. To identify the health risks of obesity, and to determine interventions to reduce those risks, research articles were examined. The search for relevant studies was conducted using OVID MEDLINE, PUB MED, CINAHL, and COCHRANE databases. SUMMARY OF LITERATURE Dietary interventions form the fundamental element of the management of obesity. There is a wide variety of possible diets, but no consensus on which is the most effective for weight reduction. A review by Noakes and Clifton (2004) compared the effects of a low carbohydrate diet and a low fat diet. Overall, the studies revealed that a very low carbohydrate diet resulted in significantly more weight loss than low fat diet in the short to medium term. On the other hand, a moderately low carbohydrate diet resulted in similar weight loss as a low fat diet. Moreover, the very low and moderately low carbohydrate diets have been found to more effectively reduce triglyceride, and increase high density lipoprotein (HDL) levels compared to low fat diet. Again, comparison between the low carbohydrate and low fat diets was performed by Lecheminant et al. (2007). In a quazi-experimental design, 102 participants were assigned either to a low carbohydrate (LC) or a low fat (LF) group. Both groups followed a very low energy diet and lost significant body weight (LC 20.4 kg, LF 19.1 kg) and waist circumference. The differences between the two groups were not statistically significant. In addition to the diet, all participants were involved in brisk walking 300 minutes per week, and all were issued pedometers to monitor their progress. Also, both groups were equally effective at preventing weight re-gain over six months, and both groups were found to have a decreased blood pressure as a result of weight loss. Similarly, a systematic review by Pirozzo, Summerbell, Cameron and Glasziou (2002) compared the effects of a low fat diet to low calorie diet and low carbohydrate diet. Six randomized controlled trials with a total of 594 participants were analyzed over a period of six to eighteen months. Overall results demonstrated non-significant differences in weight loss, weight maintenance, serum lipids, and blood pressure between all the diets reviewed. Moreover, a one year randomized trial by Dansinger, Gleason and Griffith (2005) compared Atkins, Zone, Weight Watchers, and Ornish diets. A single center randomized trial assigned 160 participants among the four diet groups. After one year, all diet groups were found to have significantly reduced weight and waist size, without significant differences between groups. Similarly to previous studies, low carbohydrate diets reduced triglycerides and diastolic blood pressure, all except Ornish diet group increased high density lipoprotein (HDL), and all except Atkins diet group reduced low density lipoprotein (LDL). In addition to energy restriction through the diet, energy expenditure may enhance weight loss. In a meta-analysis by Shaw, Gennat, O’Rourke and Del Mar (2006), 41 randomized controlled clinical trials were analyzed to determine the effects of exercise in overweight and obese adults. The multiple exercise interventions included walking, jogging, cycle ergometry, weight training, aerobics, treadmill, stair stepping, dancing, ball games, calisthenics, rowing, and aqua jogging. The 3476 participants exercised three to five days a week for a median duration of forty five minutes a day. Several of the studies compared exercise to diet either alone or in combination with exercise. The results revealed that exercise alone led to marginal weight loss, but when combined with diet produced significant weight reduction. Moreover, comparing the intensities of the various types of exercise activities, it was found that both high and low intensity exercises were associated with weight loss. Nonetheless, high intensity induced only slightly more weight reduction than low intensity, but when the diet component was added, the difference between high and low intensity was not significant. Additionally, the findings revealed that systolic blood pressure reduction was favored by diet over exercise, and diastolic blood  pressure was reduced equally likely by exercise as by diet. Furthermore, exercise did not reduce cholesterol levels, but was found to reduce triglycerides equally well as diet. Patients involved in the exercise trials improved diastolic blood pressure, triglyceride, high density lipoprotein, and glucose levels regardless of whether they lost weight. One of the most difficult aspects of weight loss plans is consistent adherence to exercise. A meta-analysis by Richardson et al. looked at the effects of walking on weight reduction (2008). 307 participants in nine interventional studies were provided with pedometers to monitor step count. Pedometers served as motivational tools to self monitor and reach the goals of walking. The participants logged the daily recorded steps, and reviewed their results during group meetings. On average about 0.05 kg was lost per week after walking two thousand to four thousand steps per day. Although the amount of weight lost in the trials was small, adherence to walking programs and increasing step count according to preset goals is important for the beneficial effects on health. The physical activity reduced the risk of cardiovascular events, lowered blood pressure, and helped maintain lean muscle mass of the participants. The studies have shown that the use of pedometer is helpful in monitoring the progress of physical activity, and is a good way to motivate continued increase in walking. Another meta-analysis compared different psychological interventions and their effects on weight reduction (Shaw, O’Rourke, Del Mar, Kenardy, 2005). 36 randomized controlled clinical trials including 3495 participants were evaluated. The majority of studies assessed the effects of behavioral interventions on weight loss. The duration of clinical contact with the participants ranged from 7 to 78 weeks, with sessions lasting 60 minutes weekly. The techniques included stimulus control, goal setting, and self-monitoring. The therapies enhanced dietary restraints by providing adaptive dietary strategies, and by increasing motivation for physical activities, and to maintain adherence to the healthier lifestyle. Behavioral therapy was successful at decreasing weight as a stand-alone strategy (2.5 kg), and even greater weight reduction was attained when combined with diet and exercise (4.9 kg). Several evaluated studies also assessed cognitive  therapy, psychotherapy, relaxation therapy, and hypnotherapy, but the results of these either did not reveal significant weight reduction, or resulted in weight gain. Moreover, a number of studies found that weight loss was associated with reductions in systolic and diastolic blood pressure, serum cholesterol, triglycerides, and fasting plasma glucose. These findings once again confirm the important health benefits of reducing weight. Overall, the research suggests that most diets are equally effective at weight reduction. There are multiple more or less popular diets known, and according to Dansinger et al. (2005), more than one thousand diet books are now accessible. Instead of searching for the best available, obese patients should be advised that any diet would be more effective than the one they are currently consuming. Moreover, diet modification has been shown to be more effective than exercise, but both are beneficial in reducing cardiovascular risk factors. Exercise does not have to be intense, and walking on most days of the week is sufficient for risk reduction when continued long term. Finally, addition of behavioral interventions may strengthen motivation and self monitoring, and enhance weight loss maintenance. INTERVENTIONS AND RESULTS Bob was presented with the literature findings on health risks and health promotion, and was encouraged to lose weight by diet, and involvement in more physical activities. He was introduced with the possible options, and it was recommended that he participates in designing his weight loss plan. This way Bob could have more control over the interventions, and was able to incorporate his preferences. Bob identified his perceived benefits of losing weight as: improved body image, mood, physical fitness and agility, reduced blood pressure, and reduced risk of comorbidities. The main barriers were mainly the resistance to eliminate favorite foods, and occasional laziness to perform physical activities. Instead of starting one of the multiple popular diets, Bob decided to reduce  his portion sizes initially by 30%, substitute supper and snacks by fruits and vegetables, and eliminate soda and juice. To assure smaller portion sizes, Bob was encouraged to use a smaller plate than usual. He also agreed to drink at least two liters of water a day, especially with meals, to reach satiety sooner. He was encouraged to keep a journal of all his daily intakes of food and drink to monitor his diet, and to identify some hidden sources of excess consumption. Moreover, to avoid excess eating, Bob was instructed to only eat at the table, and to not allow family members to eat any food while sitting on the couch or in front of the computer. He also decided to become more physically active, and his choice of daily exercise was walking. Bob was encouraged to purchase a pedometer to monitor progress in physical activity, aiming for at least two thousand steps a day. Richardson et al. (2008) informed that a two thousand step walk was estimated to equal one mile. Bob was also encouraged to set weekly walking goals, slowly increasing his step count. Bob’s family was also involved in his attempt to lose weight. To help him attain his goals, family members planned to show support for Bob’s exercise by joining him. Furthermore, Bob was encouraged to identify situations of daily living providing opportunities for more physical activities, for example parking further away from the entrance at work and grocery store. Weekly meetings evaluated Bob’s progress, and discussed about difficulties of following the plan. Bob remained strongly motivated throughout the eight weeks of intervention, and successfully reached most of his weekly dietary and exercise goals. Portions of his meals decreased steadily until no more than 50% of initial food intake was reached, and the snacks included fruits and vegetables only. Daily step count reached up to six thousand steps on some days, and daily walks through the park with his wife became an enjoyable routine. To everyone’s surprise, during the third week Bob decided to accompany his sons to the health club twice a week, where he swam in the pool for one hour. He expressed feeling energized after any physical activity. Several small relapses were recorded when Bob missed a couple days of walking, and could not resist eating high calorie or high fat foods. At the end of eight weeks of interventions, Bob has lost nine pounds, reduced his BMI to 33.9 kg/m ², and his waist circumference decreased by 1.25 inches.  Also, his systolic and diastolic blood pressure was slightly reduced. Unfortunately, the effect on the blood lipid level has not been tested. In conclusion, during only eight weeks Bob turned from moderately obese to mildly obese, and remained motivated to continue the weight loss plan. DISCUSSION Research has revealed that any diet, as long as caloric intake is restricted, will result in weight loss. It has been calculated that to lose one pound a week, one has to restrict food intake by 500 kcal per day. Patients often get discouraged by the slow effects of weight loss. On the other hand, studies point that â€Å"more restrictive diets have lower compliance rates and increased weight regain† (Palamara et al., 2006). Unfortunately, losing the  weight is not the biggest challenge. What people mostly fail at is maintaining the reduced weight. Effective weight maintenance requires not only decreasing energy intake and increasing energy expenditure, but also modification of behaviors that predispose to weight gain. Bob monitored his daily dietary intake, and avoided situations leading to overeating. Also, the pedometer monitored the amount of walking, and served as a motivational tool. Moreover, intrinsic motivation for physical activities, as described by Teixeira et al. (2006), is the satisfaction from participating in an activity, while extrinsic motivation describes the desire of slimmer appearance, and weight management. The authors presented that the extrinsic motives correlated with short term weight loss, whereas intrinsic motives predicted long term results. Bob expressed enjoyment of daily walks through the park, which correlates with intrinsic motivation, and therefore he is likely to continue over longer period of time. It is important that diet or exercise is maintained for the pleasure and positive feelings brought on by the activity. IMPLICATIONS OF FINDINGS FOR CLINICAL PRACTICE The continuing rise in obesity and related risk factors, and failure of maintaining long term weight loss result in increasing prevalence of comorbidities. Health care costs related to treating ailments resulting from obesity will continue to rise, unless health care providers utilize more effective measures to deal with the problem. Promoting healthy nutrition and lifestyle early in life may prevent the development of obesity. It is a great challenge for nurse practitioners to help patients maintain their weight. Although the recommended compositions of various diets include specific amounts of fats, carbohydrates, and protein, the research revealed that it is the total caloric content that is responsible for weight loss, regardless of nutrient partitioning. Once the patient is ready and willing to commit, the treatment strategy should be devised together. Since the variety of diet options have been shown to have similar effects, the nurse practitioner can help match the nutritional plan with patient’s dietary preferences. Although diet was found to be more effective in weight reduction than exercise, patients with cardiovascular risk factors should be  educated about the benefits of physical activities. It is important to encourage continuous participation in exercise, even when no reduction of weight is observed. Lifestyle changes can be difficult to sustain for the patient, hence continuous support and motivation by a nurse practitioner are necessary. The interventions require dedication of both, the patient and the nurse practitioner. Also, counseling patient’s family, and encouraging to get involved in loved one’s struggle through weight loss and weight maintenance may provide additional support, and contribute to lasting behavior changes. Behavioral strategies such as encouraging setting appropriate goals, self monitoring and evaluation may increase the chance of success. Patient’s satisfaction with the choice of diet and physical activity, and successful long term adherenc e are the best predictors of lifelong weight maintenance. CONCLUSION The comorbidities associated with obesity substantially lower the individual’s quality of life, and are also becoming an enormous burden on health care. Successful treatment and prevention of obesity can reduce the occurrence of its complications. Dieting is resented by most individuals, therefore it is necessary to assist patients to find appropriate and motivating interventions that can be successfully followed life long. Patient’s willingness to commit to a long term adherence is essential to permanent lifestyle changes. It is a long and difficult journey from deciding to lose weight to the successful long term results, but even small losses of weight can produce important health benefits. REFERENCES Balkau, B., Deanfield, J.E., Despres, J.P., Bassand, J.P., Fox, K.A., Smith, S.C.Jr., Barter, P., Tan, C.E., Van Gaal, L., Wittchen, H.U., Massien, C., Haffner, S.M. (2007, October). International Day for the Evaluation of Abdominal Obesity (IDEA): a study of waist circumference, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes mellitus in 168,000 primary care patients in 63 countries. _Circulation, 116_(17), 1942-51. Retrieved February 5, 2008, from OVID MEDLINE database. Bardia, A., Holtan, S.G., Slezak, J.M., Thompson, W.G. (2007, August). Diagnosis of obesity by primary care physicians and impact on obesity management. _Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 82_(8), 927-32. Retrieved February 7, 2008, from OVID MEDLINE database. Behn, A., Ur, E. (2006, July). The obesity epidemic and its cardiovascular consequences. _Current Opinion in Cardiology, 21_(4), 353-60. Retrieved February 7, 2008, from OVID MEDLINE database. Biaggioni, I. (2008, Feb). Should we target the sympathetic nervous system in the treatment of obesity-associated hypertension? _Hypertension, 51_(2), 168-71. Retrieved April 4, 2008, from OVID MEDLINE database. Chen, L., Peeters, A., Magliano, D.J., Shaw, J.E., Welborn, T.A., Wolfe, R., Zimmet, P.Z., Tonkin, A.M. (2007, December). Anthropometric measures and absolute cardiovascular risk estimates in the Australian Diabetes, Obesity and Lifestyle (AusDiab) Study. _European Journal of Cardiovascular Prevention & Rehabilitation, 14_(6), 740-5. Retrieved February 7, 2008, from OVID MEDLINE database. Dansinger, M.L., Gleason, J.A., Griffith, J.L., et al. (2005). Comparison of the Atkins, Ornish, Weight Watchers, and Zone diets for weight loss and heart disease risk reduction. _Journal of American Medical Association, 293,_ 43-53. Retrieved February 5, 2008, from Electronic Journals. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (n.d.). _Overweight and obesity: Economic consequences, 2007._ Retrieved February 7, 2008, from http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/obesity/economic_consequences.htm Despres, J.P. (2007, June). Cardiovascular disease under the influence of excess visceral fat. _Critical Pathways in Cardiology: A Journal of Evidence-Based Medicine, 6_(2), 51-9. Retrieved February 5, 2008, from OVID MEDLINE database. Lecheminant, J.D., Gibson, C.A., Sullivan, D.K., Hall, S., Washburn, R., Vernon, M.C., Curry, C., Stewart, E., Westman, E.C., Donnelly, J.E. (2007, November). Comparison of a low carbohydrate and low fat diet for weight maintenance in overweight or obese adults enrolled in a clinical weight management program. _Nutrition Journal, 6,_ 36. Retrieved February 7, 2008, from PubMed database. Mulrow, C.D., Chiquette, E., Angel, L., Cornell, J., Summerbell, C., Anagnostelis, B., Brand, M., Grimm, R.Jr. (1998). Dieting to reduce body weight for controlling hypertension in adults. _Cochrane Hypertension Group. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (4),_ CD000484. Retrieved February 5, 2008, from COCHRANE database. Noakes, M., Clifton, P. (2004, February). Weight loss, diet composition and cardiovascular risk. _Current Opinion in Lipidology, 15_(1), 31-35. Retrieved February 5, 2008, from OVID MEDLINE database. Palamara, K.L., Mogul, H.R., Peterson, S.J., Frishman, W.H. (2006). Obesity: new perspectives and pharmacotherapies. _Cardiology in Review, 14_(5), 238-58. Retrieved February 7, 2008, from OVID MEDLINE database. Peeters, A., O’Brien, P.E., Laurie, C., Anderson, M., Wolfe, R., Flum, D., MacInnis, R.J., English, D.R., Dixon, J. (2007, December). Substantial intentional weight loss and mortality in the severely obese. _Annals of Surgery, 246_(6), 1028-33. Retrieved February 7, 2008, from OVID MEDLINE database. Pirozzo, S., Summerbell, C., Cameron, C., Glasziou, P. (2002). Advice on low-fat diets for obesity. _Cochrane Metabolic and Endocrine Disorders Group. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (2),_ CD003640. Retrieved February 5, 2008, from COCHRANE database. Richardson, C.R., Newton, T.L., Abraham, J.J., Sen, A., Jimbo, M., Swartz, A.M. (2008, Jan-Feb). A meta-analysis of pedometer-based walking interventions and weight loss. _Annals of Family Medicine, 6_(1), 69-77. Retrieved February 7, 2008, from CINAHL database. Shaw, K., Gennat, H., O’Rourke, P., Del Mar, C. (2006). Exercise for overweight or obesity. _Cochrane Metabolic and Endocrine Disorders Group. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (4),_ CD003817. Retrieved February 5, 2008, from COCHRANE database. Shaw, K., O’Rourke, P., Del Mar, C., Kenardy, J. (2005). Psychological interventions for overweight or obesity. _Cochrane Metabolic and Endocrine Disorders Group. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (2),_ CD003818. Retrieved February 7, 2008, from COCHRANE database. Teixeira, P.J., Going, S.B., Houtkooper, L.B., Cussler, E.C., Metcalfe, L.L., Blew, R.M., Sardinha, L.B., Lohman, T.G. (2006, Jan). Exercise motivation, eating, and body image variables as predictors of weight control. _Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 38_(1), 179-88. Retrieved April 4, 2008, from OVID MEDLINE database. Vlassov, V.V., (2001). Weight reduction for reducing mortality in obesity and overweight. _Cochrane Metabolic and Endocrine Disorders Group. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (3),_ CD003203. Retrieved February 5, 2008, from COCHRANE database.

Wednesday, October 23, 2019

Should People Seeking Government Assistance?

â€Å"Shouldn’t you have to pass a urine test to get a welfare check since I have to pass one to earn it for you? † That’s the question many, hardworking Americans are asking themselves. In today’s America, government aid is highly depended on. The US government has spent $498 billion dollars this year on welfare alone. Mandatory drug testing for welfare applicants is becoming a popular idea across the U. S. Many states including Alabama, Kentucky, Oklahoma and Louisiana are considering adopting laws that would require states to drug test welfare applicants.In Florida, Republican Gov. Rick Scott passed a law that required welfare applicants to pay for and pass a drug test from July through October 2011. According to the National Conference for State Legislatures, Florida was one of three states in 2011 to put a drug testing for public assistance in the books; twenty eight states in 2012 proposed similar measures. The Department of Children and Families rep orted that 108 people tested positive for drugs, while 3,936 adults showed no sign of drugs in their system.Another 2,306 people opted not to take the drug test, though the survey did not ask why they were refusing to take the test, so there is no data to show whether those people objected to the policy or had obtained employment and therefore canceled their application. In September 2011, a University of Central Florida student, with the help of the American Civil Liberties Union of Florida, sued the state over the new law mandating drug testing of all welfare applicants. A little more than a month after the suit was filed, a federal judge ordered a temporary stop to the drug testing.A bench trial is scheduled for March 2013 before U. S. District Judge Mary Scriven. Required drug tests for people seeking welfare benefits ended up costing taxpayers more than it saved. Of the 4,086 applicants who scheduled drug tests while the law was enforced, 108 people, or 2. 6 percent, failed, mo st often testing positive for marijuana. The numbers show that taxpayers spent $118,140 to reimburse people for drug test costs, at an average of $35 per screening. The state lost of Florida lost $45,780, and that’s not counting attorney and court fees and the thousands of hours of staff time it took to enforce this policy.Drug testing welfare applicants was considered unconstitutional by many citizens, they claimed it went against The Fourth Amendment. The Fourth Amendment of the U. S. Constitution provides, â€Å"The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. Ultimately, these words strive to protect two fundamental liberty interests – the right to privacy and freedom from personal inv asions. The Supreme Court has ruled out a number of incidents as to what an â€Å"unreasonable† search looks like. So far, it doesn't look like a drug test to control how people on welfare spend their money. Supposedly, the mandatory drug tests are designed to reduce deficits, utilize tax-payer money more efficiently, and encourage â€Å"personal responsibility. The government now will have the power to kick people off welfare, or otherwise simply deny them welfare, should the person fail their mandated drug test. Aside from deterring these self-destructive behaviors, they believe they will also save millions of dollars because they suspect they will no longer have to subsidize the drug dependencies of a substantial amount of recipients. When Reagan became President in 1986, he began to push drug testing in the workplace, schools, and those applying for free benefits as part of the escalating war on drugs.Since then, drug testing has proliferated to the rest of society. For some businesses, it has become a major hiring tool, while for others it does not exist. For those that do use drug testing, it comes on many forms. Tests range from urine based to hair based to drug recognition experts; each test has its own strengths and weaknesses. The easiest and cheapest tests to perform are urine tests. The most basic and easiest to perform is called an EMIT test. EMIT stands for enzyme multiplied immunoassay technique and involves a urine sample from the subject.The test looks for certain enzymes that occur in the body when certain drugs are consumed. Unfortunately for employers, this test is one of the most undependable of the tests available. It can be easily beaten if the subject knows that they are being tested. Tests can be tampered with in many ways. Another urine test is the gas chromatography test. With this test the urine sample is separated into its component parts. The components are then carried by an inert gas into columns where the parts are sepa rated by their boiling temperature. Each specific compound will be identifiable from the est by its unique separation time. This test is far more reliable than an EMIT test, but there are still instances of errors when certain legal substances are present. A test that is more reliable and harder still to beat is the RIA test. RIA stands for radio immunoassay and it uses the same process as the EMIT test except this test uses radioactive iodine as the detection method rather than an enzyme. Drug metabolite levels are inversely proportional to the level of radioactive particles present. The RIA test is much more reliable and even harder to beat than the gas chromatography test.However, the U. S. Military is the only major employer using the RIA test. This is due to the fact that the RIA test creates radioactive waste as a result which is extremely difficult to handle and dispose of. The next step up from the RIA test is the gas chromatography/mass spectrometry test. This test utilizes what the gas chromatography started, except that it takes the process further. After the urine has been separated into its basic components, the mass spectrometer analyzes the components and provides exact molecular identification for them.Since this test is the most expensive and the most accurate of the urine tests, businesses will usually only use this test to confirm a positive result on the EMIT test. The next cheapest test to perform is a saliva test. Saliva tests are becoming more common due to their relative unobtrusiveness and their ability to detect drug use in a more recent timeframe, usually within one week. The biggest problem with saliva tests is that there are no nationally accepted concentration cutoffs. Also, the saliva test is better at detecting methamphetamines and opiates but is much less capable of detecting THC and other cannabinoids.The last test on the list is the blood test. This test requires a sample of blood from the subject which is then sent to a lab for analysis. The cost of the blood test is quite high when compared to all the rest of the tests available. Businesses that are willing to pay for the blood test are getting the most accurate test that they can subject an employee or applicant to. The only problem with blood tests is that they can only detect substances that remain in the blood for a while. If a substance is easily flushed from the blood, it will not appear on a test if the subject has not used recently.Despite their reliability, blood tests are not used often. Most of the time, similar results can be obtained using a cheaper and less intrusive method of testing. Is this all fair? Many people argue it absolutely is. After all, welfare recipients receive millions of American dollars in aid every year. It would only be fair for them to be tested to ensure the assistance is dispersed of properly. Also, many places of employment practice random drug testing. If it happens in the workforce, why would it be unfair for we lfare recipients?There are many pros and cons of this issue. The biggest positive outcome of this program is that it would discourage recipients from purchasing and using illegal drugs. This might mean they don't even need the welfare in the first place. It could also keep children and society safer. It could help lower the demand for illegal drugs on the streets. It could possibly even save the system some money; as those who are on drugs would not receive welfare. It could even create new jobs for people to run the drug testing.However, there are many cons of mandatory drug testing for people on welfare as well. One of the biggest negatives is that it is costly. Illegal drug testing is not cheap. It could cost hundreds of thousands of dollars, even if just one of every five recipients was tested. However, this may be rationalized by saying that the cost that drugs have on our society in general would be lowered. Another negative is that some people who are on prescription medicati on could show false positives, and be discriminated against, even with a doctor's involvement.

Tuesday, October 22, 2019

Double Idemnity essays

Double Idemnity essays Dim rooms with light severing through venetian blinds, alleys cluttered with garbage, deserted warehouses where dust hangs in the air, rain-slicked streets with water still running in the gutters, dark detective offices overlooking busy streets. This is film noir, a perfect blend of form and content, where the hopelessness of the situations is echoed in the visual style, which douses the world in shadows and only scarce bursts of sunlight. Film noir is a style of American films that evolved in the 1940s, and lasted until about 1960. The primary moods of classic film noir are melancholy, estrangement, bleakness, failure, pessimism, moral corruption, evil, guilt and paranoia. The females in film noir are usually femme fatales - mysterious, double-crossing, gorgeous, unloving, predatory, unreliable, irresponsible, manipulative and desperate women. Film noir films, often in grays, blacks and whites, show the dark and inhumane side of human nature with cynicism and doomed love, and they emphasize the unhealthy, shadowy, dark and sadistic sides of the human experience. A typical film noir portrays an everyday man; living a normal life, until he meets a mysterious and seductive woman, the femme fatale, who entangles him into a web of deceit, crime and corruption from which he can never disentangle himself. The femme fatale in Billy Wilders Double Indemnity is Phyllis Dietrichson, and the likeable but amoral male character is Walter Neff. From her determined heels clicking down the stairs at her first meeting with Neff, to her planned perfectly calculated deadly finale, she is cool and in complete control. No pity, no excuses, no nerves. Phyllis is attractive, and with the appeal of the smooth, the powerful, the fatal. Shes the ultimate of confidence, but inside, theres a steel trap coiled and waiting to spring. In her initial meeting with Neff she plans her moves for effect. She uses her anklet, her perfume, a ...

Monday, October 21, 2019

VEGA Surname Origin and Last Name Meaning

VEGA Surname Origin and Last Name Meaning The Spanish surname Vega is a topographical name that means dweller in the meadow or one who lives on a plain, from the Spanish word  vega, used to refer to a meadow, valley or fertile plain. It could also be a habitational name for someone from one of any of the many places in the world named Vega or La Vega. Vega is the 49th most common Spanish surname. Alternate Surname Spellings: VEGAS, VEGAZ, DE LA VEGA,   Surname Origin: Spanish Where Do People With the VEGA Surname Live? The surname distribution map at Forebears, which includes data from 227 countries, pinpoints Vega as the 519th most common surname in the world. It identifies Vega as most common in Panama where it ranks 25th in the nation, followed by Puerto Rico (27th), Costa Rica (32nd), Peru (47th), Chile (47th), Argentina (50th), Mexico (55th), Spain (62nd), Cuba (74th), Equador (81st), Colombia (87th), Paraguay (96th) and Nicaragua (99th). WorldNames PublicProfiler identifies the Vega name in Spain as most frequently found in the northern regions of Asturias, Castille Y Leon, and Cantabria, as well as the southern regions of Andalucia and the Canary Islands. Within the United States, the Vega name is most common in the southwest, in the states bordering Mexico, along with Nevada, Idaho, and Florida, plus Illinois, New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut. Famous People with the VEGA Surname Paz Vega - Spanish actressAmelia Vega - 2003 Miss UniverseJurij Vega - Slovene mathematician and physicist- Spanish playwrightGarcilaso de la Vega - Spanish poet Genealogy Resources for the Surname VEGA 50 Most Common Spanish SurnamesHave you ever wondered about your Spanish last name and how it came to be? This article describes common Spanish naming patterns and explores the meaning and origins of 50 common Spanish surnames. Vega Family Crest - Its Not What You ThinkContrary to what you may hear, there is no such thing as a Vega family crest or coat of arms for the Vega surname.  Coats of arms are granted to individuals, not families, and may rightfully be used only by the uninterrupted male-line descendants of the person to whom the coat of arms was originally granted.   The Vega DNA Surname ProjectThis Y-DNA surname project is open to all  families with this surname, of all spelling variations, and from all locations, with the goal of using DNA matches to  help find the paper trail that leads further back up the Vega family tree. VEGA Family Genealogy ForumThis free message board is focused on descendants of Vega ancestors around the world. Search past queries, or post a question of your own. FamilySearch - VEGA GenealogyAccess over 1.7 million free historical records and lineage-linked family trees posted for the Vega surname and its variations on this free genealogy website hosted by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. VEGA Surname Mailing ListThis free mailing list for researchers of the Vega surname and its variations includes subscription details and searchable archives of past messages. Hosted by RootsWeb. DistantCousin.com - VEGA Genealogy Family HistoryExplore free databases and genealogy links for the last name Vega. The Vega Genealogy and Family Tree PageBrowse family trees and links to genealogical and historical records for individuals with the last name Vega from the website of Genealogy Today. - References: Surname Meanings Origins Cottle, Basil. Penguin Dictionary of Surnames. Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1967. Dorward, David. Scottish Surnames. Collins Celtic (Pocket edition), 1998. Fucilla, Joseph. Our Italian Surnames. Genealogical Publishing Company, 2003. Hanks, Patrick, and Flavia Hodges. A Dictionary of Surnames. Oxford University Press, 1989. Hanks, Patrick. Dictionary of American Family Names. Oxford University Press, 2003. Reaney, P.H. A Dictionary of English Surnames. Oxford University Press, 1997. Smith, Elsdon C. American Surnames. Genealogical Publishing Company, 1997. Back to Glossary of Surname Meanings Origins

Sunday, October 20, 2019

Definition and Examples of Politeness Strategies

Definition and Examples of Politeness Strategies In sociolinguistics  and  conversation analysis (CA), politeness strategies are  speech acts that express concern for others and minimize threats to self-esteem (face) in particular social contexts. Positive Politeness Strategies Positive politeness strategies are intended to avoid giving offense by highlighting friendliness. These strategies include juxtaposing criticism with compliments, establishing common ground, and using jokes, nicknames, honorifics, tag questions, special discourse markers (please), and in-group jargon and slang. Negative Politeness Strategies Negative political strategies are intended to avoid giving offense by showing deference. These strategies include questioning, hedging, and presenting disagreements as opinions. The Face Saving Theory of Politeness The best known and most widely used approach to the study of politeness is the framework introduced by Penelope Brown and Stephen C. Levinson in Questions and Politeness (1978); reissued with corrections as Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1987). Brown and Levinsons theory of linguistic politeness is sometimes referred to as the face-saving theory of politeness. Examples and Observations Shut up! is rude, even ruder than Keep quiet! In the polite version, Do you think you would mind keeping quiet: this is, after all, a library, and other people are trying to concentrate, everything in italics is extra. It is there to soften the demand, giving an impersonal reason for the request, and avoiding the brutally direct by the taking of trouble. Conventional grammar takes little account of such strategies, even though we are all masters of both making and understanding the signs that point to what is going on beneath the surface.(Margaret Visser, The Way We Are. HarperCollins, 1994)Professor, I was wondering if you could tell us about the Chamber of Secrets.(Hermione in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, 2002)Would you mind stepping aside? I got a purchase to make.(Eric Cartman in Cartmanland.  South Park, 2001)Sir, the gentleman asked with a twang in his voice that was unmistakably Southern, would it bother you terribly  if I joined you?(Harold Coyle, Look Away. S imon Schuster, 1995)   Laurence, said Caroline, I dont think Im going to be much help to you at Ladylees.  Ive had enough holiday-making.  Ill stay for a couple of days but I want to get back to London and do some work, actually. Sorry to change my mind butGo to hell, Laurence said. Kindly go to hell.(Muriel Spark,  The Comforters. Macmillan, 1957)   A Definition of Politeness What exactly is politeness? In one sense, all politeness can be viewed as deviation from maximally efficient communication; as violations (in some sense) of Grice’s (1975) conversational maxims [see cooperative principle]. To perform an act other than in the most clear and efficient manner possible is to implicate some degree of politeness on the part of the speaker. To request another to open a window by saying â€Å"It’s warm in here† is to perform the request politely because one did not use the most efficient means possible for performing this act (i.e., â€Å"Open the window†). . . .Politeness allows people to perform many inter-personally sensitive actions in a nonthreatening or less threatening manner.There are an infinite number of ways in which people can be polite by performing an act in a less than optimal manner, and Brown and Levinson’s typology of five superstrategies is an attempt to capture some of these essential differences.(Thomas Holtgraves, Language as Social Action: Social Psychology and Language Use. Lawrence Erlbaum, 2002) Orienting to Different Kinds of Politeness People who grow up in communities that are more oriented to negative face wants and negative politeness may find that they are perceived as aloof or cold if they move somewhere where positive politeness is emphasized more. They may also mistake some of the conventionalised positive politeness routines as being expressions of genuine friendship or closeness . . .. Conversely, people accustomed to paying attention to positive face wants and using positive politeness strategies may find that they come across as unsophisticated or vulgar if they find themselves in a community that is more oriented to negative face wants.(Miriam Meyerhoff, Introducing Sociolinguistics. Routledge, 2006) Variables in Degrees of Politeness Brown and Levinson list three sociological variables that speakers employ in choosing the degree of politeness to use and in calculating the amount of threat to their own face: (i) the social distance of the speaker and hearer (D);(ii) the relative power of the speaker over the hearer (P);(iii) the absolute ranking of impositions in the particular culture (R). The greater the social distance between the interlocutors (e.g., if they know each other very little), the more politeness is generally expected. The greater the (perceived) relative power of hearer over speaker, the more politeness is recommended. The heavier the imposition made on the hearer (the more of their time required, or the greater the favour requested), the more politeness will generally have to be used.(Alan Partington, The Linguistics of Laughter: A Corpus-Assisted Study of Laughter-Talk. Routledge, 2006) Positive and Negative Politeness Brown and Levinson (1978/1987) distinguish between positive and negative politeness. Both types of politeness involve maintainingor redressing threats topositive and negative face, where positive face is defined as the addressees perennial desire that his wants . . . should be thought of as desirable (p. 101), and negative face as the addressees want to have his freedom of action unhindered and his attention unimpeded (p. 129).(Almut Koester, Investigating Workplace Discourse. Routledge, 2006) Common Ground [C]ommon ground, information perceived to be shared among communicators, is important not only for gauging what information is likely to be already known versus new, but also to carry a message of interpersonal relationships. Brown and Levinson (1987) argued that claiming common ground in communication is a major strategy of positive politeness, which is a series of conversational moves that recognise the partners needs and wants in a way that shows they represent a commonality, such as a commonality of knowledge, attitudes, interests, goals, and in-group membership.(Anthony Lyons et al., Cultural Dynamics of Stereotypes. Stereotype Dynamics: Language-Based Approaches to the Formation, Maintenance, and Transformation of Stereotypes, ed. by Yoshihisa Kashima, Klaus Fiedler, and Peter Freytag. Psychology Press, 2007) The Lighter Side of Politeness Strategies Page Conners: [bursting into Jacks bar] I want my purse, jerk-off!Jack Withrowe: Thats not very friendly. Now, I want you to go back out, and this time, when you kick the door open, say something nice.(Jennifer Love Hewitt and Jason Lee in Heartbreakers, 2001)

Saturday, October 19, 2019

Continuing Academic Success Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Continuing Academic Success - Essay Example of objective formulation in education can be metaphorically represented by a destination which without, an individual may find the purpose of travelling thus would consider either going back home or wonder aimlessly. In this program, my goal is to get a†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. grade, which will be a significant improvement from the previous term’s†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. grade. Setting up an objective does not end by a merely stated idea. However, the essentiality of the set goal will only be marked when proper measures and schedules are structured to act as a guide for achieving the set goal. In this light, the measures that I consider essential in meeting up my goal of improving my grade are to spend more time in the library. Spending more time will not mean going to relax in the library; rather it will mean spending more time for personal studies as well as more research on the units I am undertaking. Initiating effective consultations is also important as it will allow me to engage more with the teachers at an individual level and get help in key academic areas that may prove a challenge in attaining the set target. Knowing and keeping to the identified style of learning would not only help me in my academic achievements, but will also be of significance to my future career pursuits. This will be in line with my ability to do personal work without supervision hence enhancing my productivity at the workplace. I consider the writing process very important in the advancement of my education as well as in my career advancement. The scope of applying effective writing is very wide, and is mainly associated with the need for effective communication. In my educational program, writing marks the main mechanisms through which my development is evaluated in relation to the progress that I make towards my career dreams. Effective communication through writing up my papers enables the teachers to determine how well I am growing and provides the foundation through which they can offer advice

Friday, October 18, 2019

Common Assessment Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Common Assessment - Research Paper Example The company has been a subject of criticism for its products mainly due to the fact that they are causing high levels of obesity to the customers. In an effort to curb this recent challenge that it has been subject to mainly in the western countries, McDonald’s Corporation has introduced healthier items in its menu which are inclusive of: fruits, salads and wraps. The fast food restaurant as has already been preempted has operations in markets globally hence it is fairly distributed in very many countries. In regard to this paper though, the main attention will be placed in India, France, England and China as a critical analysis and comparison is carried out on the marketing mix that the company employs mainly in the identified countries. McDonald’s Corporation’s 4P’s Marketing Mix McDonald’s forms part of the brands that are best known worldwide hence its main aim in marketing is to continue building stronger its brand in international markets by b eing a perfect listener of its customers. It is important though to take note of the fact that McDonald’s faces stiff competition from other fast food restaurants hence the need for a very competitive and effective marketing mix so s to continue emerging as the best in the diverse markets. Having identified the target customers that it is dealing with, McDonald’s comes out strongly to create a marketing mix that optimally appeals specifically to the target group (Kurtz 2010). The four main tools of marketing that are used in marketing mix are: product, price, promotion and place. In order to come up with the perfect marketing mix that optimally works for the benefit of the company basic questions are answered by the marketing department at McDonald’s. The questions whose answers determine the type of marketing mix to be used are: which products are well received in the market; what prices are the consumers willing to pay for the desired products; what television programs, newspapers are and advertising journals are mostly red and viewed by the consumers and which restaurants are mostly visited. This then offers the basis for identification of specific marketing goals of the company. With the marketing goals available, then the marketing mix (which is the focal interest point of this paper) can then be formed. Just as it is the case in other companies, the marketing mix of McDonald’s involves the four Ps which are exclusively analyzed in the following part in reference to McDonald’s. In regard to the ‘Product’ McDonald’s places more emphasis on efforts targeted at developing a menu which has what the customers do want. This is determined in McDonald’s using market research which is a very active department in the company given the fact that the requirements of the customers do change over time very rapidly. The fashionable foods today may be highly disregarded by the customers the next day (Kurtz 201 0). In an effort to keep up with the pressure that is created by the ever changing wants of the customers, McDonald’s has literally changed the old products with new products and it is still continuing to do so as to remain competitive in the market. In regard to its products, McDonald’s is very keen in knowing the fact that during the life cycle of a product in the market, changes do occur. Investment is therefore injected in the product depending on the stage at which it is in the market. It is due to this approach that at a given time, McDonald’